Ch 12 – History of South India

Region: Tamilakam / Tamizhakam

3 Powers: Chola, Chera, Pandya

3 Sangams lasted: 9,950 years

Total Sangam poets: 8,598

🗺 3 Major Powers — Emblems & Capitals ▼

🐯

Chola

Symbol: Tiger

Capital: Uraiyur → Puhar

🏹

Chera

Symbol: Bow

Capital: Vanji / Karur

🐟

Pandya

Symbol: Fish (Karp)

Capital: Madurai

Pandya: Mentioned in Megasthenes' Indica · Famous for pearls · Rule by women — matriarchal
Chola: Between Pennar & Vellaru rivers · Prosperity from cotton cloth trade + skilled navy
Chera: Most ancient among Sangam states · Mentioned as Keralaputra in Ashoka's Rock Edict

📅 South India — Dynasty Timeline ▼

Dynasty	Period	Capital	Key Fact
Sangam Chola	~190 CE	Uraiyur → Puhar	Karikala — most famous
Sangam Chera	~130–190 CE	Vanji / Karur	Most ancient · Senguttuvan — greatest
Sangam Pandya	~210–290 CE	Madurai	Nedunjeliyan — most famous
Pallava	575–900 CE	Kanchi	Founder: Simhavishnu
Rashtrakuta	735–982 CE	Mayurkhindi → Manyakheta	Founder: Dantidurga
Imperial Chola	850–1279 CE	Thanjavur	Founder: Vijayalaya · Real Founder: Rajaraja I

🐯 Chola Dynasty (Sangam Period) · Symbol: Tiger · Capital: Uraiyur

👑 Major Chola Rulers (Sangam) ▼

Uruvappaharer Ilanjetchenni

First historical ruler

Capital: Uraiyur
Famous for beautiful chariots in war

Karikala (190 CE)

Most famous Chola king · Meaning: "One with burnt legs"

Victory over Sri Lanka
Founded Puhar (Kaveripattinam)
Built dam on Kaveri river · Capital shifted: Uraiyur → Puhar
Silappadikaram — info about daughter Adinandi
Gave a poet 16 lakh gold coins

Senganan

Defeated Chera king Karnikkal and captured him
Built Shaiva temples throughout the kingdom

🏹 Chera Dynasty · Symbol: Bow · Capital: Vanji/Karur · 2nd Capital: Tondi

👑 Major Chera Rulers ▼

Uthiyan Cheral (~130 CE)

First Chera ruler · Title: Mahabhojan Uthiyan Cheral

Fed all warriors who participated in Kurukshetra

Senguttuvan / Dharmaparayan Kuttuvan (~180 CE)

Greatest Chera ruler · Called "Red / Good Chera"

Battle of Valipuram — defeated 9 Chola rulers
Title: Kadalpikkottiya (One who pushed back the sea)
Massive navy
Started Pattini / Kannagi worship — mentioned in Silappadikaram

Perum Cheral Irumporai (~190 CE)

Contemporary of Karikala (Chola)

Initiated sugarcane cultivation in South India

Kudakkoilanj Cheral Irumporai

Last Chera ruler

Grew black pepper, muslin, silk · Uraiyur = cloth trade centre

🐟 Pandya Dynasty · Symbol: Fish · Capital: Madurai · Literal meaning: Ancient

👑 Major Pandya Rulers ▼

Palashalai Mudukudumi

First historical Pandya ruler

Palashalai = one who built sacrificial halls
Performed many Yagyas · Title: Maheshwara

Nedunjeliyan

Most famous Pandya ruler

Text Madurai Kanchi describes his efficient rule
Battle of Talaiyalanganam (290 CE): Defeated Chola + Chera + 5 feudatories
Captured Chera ruler Sey (elephant eye) and imprisoned him
Title: Talaiyalanganam
Patron of poets Nakkirar and Mamundimarudan
Silappadikaram hero Kovalan given death sentence in his kingdom

Nallibkodan

Last known Pandya ruler of Sangam age

Sent ambassadors to court of Roman Emperor Augustus

🏛 3 Sangam Councils (Assemblies) Total duration: 9,950 years · 8,598 poets · 197 Pandya king patrons ▼

First Sangam

Place: Madurai

President: Sage Agastya (Agattiyar)

Members: 549 · Patron Rulers: 89

Major Work: Akattiyam (NONE surviving)

Second Sangam

Place: Alavai (Kapatapuram)

President: Tolkappiyar

Members: 49 · Patron Rulers: 59

Surviving: Tolkappiyam only

Third Sangam

Place: Northern Madurai

President: Nakkirar

Members: 49 · Patron Rulers: 49

Note: Most of remaining Tamil literature belongs to this Sangam

📖 Key Sangam Texts ▼

Text	Author	Details
Tolkappiyam	Tolkappiyar	Grammar & rhetoric · Oldest surviving text · Only survivor from 2nd Sangam
Tirukkural	Tiruvalluvar	Philosophical thoughts & aphorisms
Silappadikaram	Ilango Adigal	Love story of Kovalan, Kannagi, Madhavi
Manimekalai	Seethalai Sathanar	Story of daughter of Kovalan & Madhavi

10 Major Folk Songs (Gramkavya) — Patron Match

Poem	Author	Patron
Perumpanarruppadai	Rudran Kannanar	Tondaiman Ilantiraiyan (Kanchi ruler)
Thirumurugarruppadai	Nakkirar	—
Nedunalvadai	Nakkirar	Nedunjeliyan (Pandya)
Porunararruppadai	Kanniyar	Karikala (Chola)
Pattinappalai	Rudran Kannanar	Karikal (Chola)
Madurai Kkanji	Maangudi Marudanar	Nedunjeliyan (Pandya)
Mullaippattu	Napputanar	Talaiyalanganam (Pandya)
Kurunjippattu	Kapilar	Brihadratha (Arya emperor)

🏯 Pallava Dynasty — Intro Founder: Simhavishnu · Capital: Kanchi · Language: Tamil · Religion: Vaishnavism ▼

Capital: Kanchi · Literal meaning: Creeper (Tamil: Robber)
Religion: Vaishnavism — Alvar saints
First Sanskrit colleges called Ghatikas appeared in Pallava period
Tamil Mahabharatam created → Author Perundevanar

👑 Prominent Pallava Rulers ▼

Simhavishnu (575–600 CE)

Founder · Follower of Vaishnavism

Defeated Chola, Pandya, Sinhala, Kalabhra Kings · took control of Cholamandalam
Court poet: Bharavi → authored Kiratarjuneeyam

Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE)

Pioneer of rock-cut temple architecture in Dravidian land

Titles: Mattavilasa, Vichitrachitta, Gunabhara
Contemporary of Emperor Harsha & Pulakeshin II
Author of humorous play Mattavilasa Prahasana

Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE)

Most powerful Pallava ruler

Defeated Pulakeshin II → earned title Vatapikonda
Built monolithic ratha temples at Mahabalipuram
641 CE: Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign

Narasimhavarman II (700–725 CE)

Temple builder

Built Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram
Built Shore Temple & Airavateswara Temple at Mahabalipuram
Court author: Dandin — wrote Dashakumar Charita, Kavyadarsha

🏛 Pallava Architecture Styles ▼

Mamall Style

Builder: Narasimhavarman I

Mandapas + Rathas (monolithic)

Saptaratha temples (7 pagodas → 8 temples)

Draupadi Ratha = Smallest (hut-like)

Mahabalipuram Style

Narrative sculptures

Gangavatarana, Arjuna's Penance

Mandapas: Koneri, Adivaraha

Rajsingh Style

Stone temple of Shiva

Kailasanatha Temple (Kanchi) — Dravidian style

Builder: Rangapataka (wife of Rajsingh)

Cave: Mandagapattu Trimurti temple

⚔ Rashtrakuta Dynasty — Key Facts Founder: Dantidurga · Feudatories of Chalukyas of Badami ▼

Founder

Dantidurga

735–756 CE

Initial Capital

Mayurkhindi

Later Capital

Manyakheta

Changed by Amoghavarsha

Coins

Garuda + Shiva/Vishnu weapons

First Nagari script in South India: Samantgarh inscription of Dantidurga (754 CE)
Coronation called: Patabandha Sanskara (in inscriptions)
Dantidurga: Performed Hiranyagarbhadana Yagya after taking Ujjain · Acted as doorkeeper of Pratihara ruler

Amoghavarsha — Notable Details

Author of Kavirajamarga (Kannada language) — first Kannada text
Inscription of Ratnamallika (Sanskrit)
Court scholars: Jinasena & Swayambhu
Follower of Jainism
Arab traveler Suleiman visited India during his reign

Administration Hierarchy

Rashtra (20–25, head: Rashtrapati) → Vishaya (District, 1000–4000 villages, head: Vishayapati) → Bhukti (Tehsil, head: Bhogapati) → Village (head: Gramapati / Gramakuta / Gavunda)

🐯 Imperial Chola — Foundation ▼

Founder

Vijayalaya (850–875 CE)

Feudatory of Pallavas · Defeated Pandyas · Built Durga temple in Thanjavur

Real Founder

Rajaraja I

Capitals

Thanjavur (main) · Kanchi (sub)

Oldest dwelling: Uraiyur · Residential: Palaiyarai

👑 Key Chola Rulers ▼

Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE)

Real Founder · Original name: Arumolivarman

Defeated Sri Lanka ruler Mahendra V · New capital: Polonnaruwa (Jananathamangalam)
Title Jayagonda — for victory over Pandyas
Land measurement of entire empire
Beginning of naval fleet
Built Brihadeeswara / Rajarajeshwara Temple (Thanjavur)
Tax assessment based on land classification
Manimangalam inscription → mentions Ashwamedha Yagya

Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE)

Napoleon of the South (V.A. Smith)

Title: Gangaikondachola → after Ganga valley campaign
Complete conquest of Sinhala (Ilamandalam) 1017–18 CE
Sri Lankan King Mahendra V taken prisoner → died after 12 years
South-East Asia conquest: Kadaram, Srivijayam, Andaman-Nicobar, Arakan, Pegu (Burma)
Kalinga conquest → then Ganga valley campaign (Mahipala I defeated)
New capital: Gangaikondacholapuram
Started construction of Cholaganga pond & canal
1033 CE: Embassy to China
Established school for Vedic literature — called Pandit Chola

🏛 Chola Administration ▼

Province Hierarchy

Mandalam (6–9 provinces) → Valanadu / Kottam → Nadu (district) → Kurram (village)

3 Types of Village Assemblies

Assembly	For Whom	Details
Ur	Common people	General village institution
Sabha / Mahasabha	Brahmins	Agrahara villages (land given to Brahmins)
Nagaram	Merchants	Limited to commercial towns only

Village Committees (Variyam)

Committee	Function
Udaseen Variyam	Look after foreigners / ascetics
Tottavariyam	Garden committee (12 members)
Ponna Variyam	Gold committee
Eri Variyam	Lake committee
Samvatsara Variyam	Annual committee (12 elder scholarly members)

Land Grants (Chola Period)

Brahmadeya

Land to Brahmins

Vellanvagi

Land to non-Brahmins

Devadana

Land to temples

Pallichchandam

Land to Jain community

🛕 Chola Architecture ▼

Temple	Builder	Key Fact
Brihadeeswara / Rajarajeshwara (Thanjavur)	Rajaraja I	Dravidian style's largest temple · Granite stones · First Chola temple with boundary wall (prakar) · Monolithic Nandi statue (2nd largest in India)
Brihadeshwara Temple (Gangaikondacholapuram)	Rajendra I	On bank of Kaveri · Vijayanagar style · Dedicated to Shiva · Mandapa in 250 rows

🗺 Other Major South/East Indian Dynasties ▼

Dynasty	Founder	Capital	Key Facts
Kakatiya	Rudradeva I	Warangal	Last Ruler: Prataparudradeva · Women Ruler: Rudramadevi · Decline: 14th century
Ganga Dynasty (Odisha)	—	—	Other name: Choda Ganga · Narasimha Deva Varman built Konark Sun Temple · Anantavarman built Jagannath Temple
Kesari Dynasty	—	—	Built famous Lingaraj Temple (Bhubaneswar)
Hoysala	Vishnuvardhana	Dwarasamudra	Built Chennakesava Temple · Last ruler Veer Ballala → defeated by Malik Kafur · 10th–14th century
Yadava	Bhillama V (1187–91 CE)	Devagiri (Daulatabad)	Powerful ruler: King Singha · Last ruler: Ramchandra

⚠ TRAP 01 — 3 Kingdom Emblems

Chola = Tiger (NOT fish, NOT bow)
Chera = Bow
Pandya = Fish (Karp)
Exam mein symbol ↔ dynasty match seedha aata hai!

⚠ TRAP 02 — Pandya = Matriarchal + Pearls

Pandya = Famous for Pearls · Rule administered by women (matriarchal)
Mentioned in Megasthenes' Indica
Chola = cotton cloth · Chera = most ancient

⚠ TRAP 03 — Tolkappiyam = 2nd Sangam (Only Survivor)

Tolkappiyam = Only surviving text from 2nd Sangam
Oldest surviving Tamil text
Author: Tolkappiyar · Deals with Grammar & Rhetoric
1st Sangam = nothing survives!

⚠ TRAP 04 — Narasimhavarman I vs II

Narasimhavarman I = Defeated Pulakeshin II (title: Vatapikonda) · Built monolithic Rathas at Mahabalipuram
Narasimhavarman II = Built Kailasanatha Temple (Kanchi) + Shore Temple
Dono Pallava rulers hain — number yaad rakho!

⚠ TRAP 05 — Two Brihadeeswara Temples!

Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur = Rajaraja I (Dravidian style, granite, largest)
Brihadeeswara Temple, Gangaikondacholapuram = Rajendra I (Vijayanagar style, Kaveri bank)
Dono alag hain — builder se distinguish karo!

⚠ TRAP 06 — Rajendra I = Napoleon of South

"Napoleon of the South" = Rajendra I (Chola) — given by V.A. Smith
Title: Gangaikondachola (after Ganga valley campaign)
SE Asia conquest: Kadaram, Srivijayam, Andaman-Nicobar, Burma

⚠ TRAP 07 — Temple Builders

Konark Sun Temple = Narasimha Deva Varman (Ganga Dynasty, Odisha)
Jagannath Temple = Anantavarman (Ganga Dynasty)
Lingaraj Temple (Bhubaneswar) = Kesari Dynasty
Chennakesava Temple = Vishnuvardhana (Hoysala)

⚠ TRAP 08 — Kavirajamarga (First Kannada Text)

Kavirajamarga = Written by Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta) in Kannada
First major Kannada literary work
Amoghavarsha = Follower of Jainism · Arab traveler Suleiman visited during his reign

Chola symbol?

Tiger

Chera symbol?

Bow

Pandya symbol?

Fish (Karp)

Pandya famous for?

Pearls · Matriarchal rule

Chola initial capital?

Uraiyur (cotton textile trade)

Karikala meaning?

One with burnt legs

Karikala founded?

Puhar (Kaveripattinam)

Greatest Chera ruler?

Senguttuvan

Title: Kadalpikkottiya

Pattini / Kannagi worship started by?

Senguttuvan (Chera)

Chera — mentioned in Ashoka's edict as?

Keralaputra

Pandya capital?

Madurai

Most famous Pandya ruler?

Nedunjeliyan

Pandya ambassador to Rome?

Nallibkodan (to Augustus)

1st Sangam place?

Madurai · President: Agastya

2nd Sangam place?

Alavai (Kapatapuram) · Tolkappiyar

3rd Sangam place?

Northern Madurai · Nakkirar

Oldest Tamil text?

Tolkappiyam

Only survivor from 2nd Sangam

Tirukkural author?

Tiruvalluvar

Silappadikaram author?

Ilango Adigal

Pallava founder?

Simhavishnu (575–600 CE)

Pallava capital?

Kanchi

Vatapikonda title — Pallava ruler?

Narasimhavarman I

Defeated Pulakeshin II

Kailasanatha Temple — built by?

Narasimhavarman II

Kanchipuram

Pioneer of rock-cut temples in Dravidian?

Mahendravarman I (Pallava)

Mattavilasa Prahasana author?

Mahendravarman I

Rashtrakuta founder?

Dantidurga

First Nagari script in South India?

Dantidurga's Samantgarh inscription (754 CE)

Kavirajamarga — language?

Kannada · Author: Amoghavarsha

Imperial Chola founder?

Vijayalaya (850–875 CE)

Real founder of Imperial Chola?

Rajaraja I

Rajaraja I original name?

Arumolivarman

Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur — builder?

Rajaraja I

Granite · Largest Dravidian temple

"Napoleon of the South"?

Rajendra I

Given by V.A. Smith

Gangaikondachola title — who?

Rajendra I

Konark Sun Temple builder?

Narasimha Deva Varman (Ganga Dynasty)

Jagannath Temple builder?

Anantavarman (Ganga Dynasty)

Lingaraj Temple (Bhubaneswar)?

Kesari Dynasty

Hoysala founder?

Vishnuvardhana

Built Chennakesava Temple

Chola village assembly for Brahmins?

Sabha / Mahasabha

Chola village assembly for merchants?

Nagaram