Ch 12 – History of South India

Region: Tamilakam / Tamizhakam

3 Powers: Chola, Chera, Pandya

3 Sangams (later tradition) lasted: 9,950 years

Poets (traditional account): 8,598

🗺 3 Major Powers — Emblems & Capitals ▼

🐯

Chola

Symbol: Tiger

Capital: Uraiyur → Puhar

🏹

Chera

Symbol: Bow

Capital: Vanji / Karur

🐟

Pandya

Symbol: Fish (Karp)

Capital: Madurai

Pandya: Mentioned in Megasthenes' Indica · Famous for pearls · Rule by women — woman-ruler literary account; not proof of matriarchy
Chola: Between Pennar & Vellaru rivers · Prosperity from cotton cloth trade + skilled navy
Chera: An early Sangam kingdom; no established relative-age ranking · Mentioned as Keralaputra in Ashoka's Rock Edict

📅 South India — Dynasty Timeline ▼

Dynasty	Period	Capital	Key Fact
Sangam Chola	Early centuries CE (ruler dates approximate)	Uraiyur → Puhar	Karikala — most famous
Sangam Chera	Early centuries CE (ruler dates approximate)	Vanji / Karur	Early kingdom · Senguttuvan — greatest
Sangam Pandya	Early centuries CE (ruler dates approximate)	Madurai	Nedunjeliyan — most famous
Pallava	575–900 CE	Kanchi	Founder: Simhavishnu
Rashtrakuta	735–982 CE	Mayurkhindi → Manyakheta	Founder: Dantidurga
Imperial Chola	850–1279 CE	Thanjavur	Founder: Vijayalaya · Real Founder: Rajaraja I

🐯 Chola Dynasty (Sangam Period) · Symbol: Tiger · Capital: Uraiyur

👑 Major Chola Rulers (Sangam) ▼

Uruvappaharer Ilanjetchenni

Early ruler / Karikala’s father in tradition

Capital: Uraiyur
Famous for beautiful chariots in war

Karikala (Sangam tradition; exact date uncertain)

Most famous Chola king · Meaning: "One with burnt legs"

Victory over Sri Lanka
Founded Puhar (Kaveripattinam)
Built dam on Kaveri river · Capital shifted: Uraiyur → Puhar
Silappadikaram — info about daughter Adinandi
Gave a poet 16 lakh gold coins

Senganan

Defeated Chera king Karnikkal and captured him
Built Shaiva temples throughout the kingdom

🏹 Chera Dynasty · Symbol: Bow · Capital: Vanji/Karur · 2nd Capital: Tondi

👑 Major Chera Rulers ▼

Uthiyan Cheral (Sangam literary tradition; date uncertain)

Early Chera ruler in literary tradition · Title: Mahabhojan Uthiyan Cheral

Poetic tradition credits a feast for Mahabharata armies; not a securely dated historical event

Senguttuvan / Dharmaparayan Kuttuvan (literary tradition; date debated)

Greatest Chera ruler · Called "Red / Good Chera"

Battle of Valipuram — defeated 9 Chola rulers
Title: Kadalpikkottiya (One who pushed back the sea)
Massive navy
Started Pattini / Kannagi worship — mentioned in Silappadikaram

Perum Cheral Irumporai (Sangam account; exact date uncertain)

Contemporary of Karikala (Chola)

Conquest of Tagadur in the Chera literary tradition

Kudakkoilanj Cheral Irumporai

Ruler of the early Irumporai line; later Chera history continued

Black pepper cultivation and trade; muslin and silk are textiles · Uraiyur = cloth trade centre

🐟 Pandya Dynasty · Symbol: Fish · Capital: Madurai · Literal meaning: Ancient

👑 Major Pandya Rulers ▼

Palashalai Mudukudumi

Early Pandya ruler associated with Vedic sacrifices

Palashalai = one who built sacrificial halls
Performed many Yagyas · Title: Maheshwara

Nedunjeliyan

Most famous Pandya ruler

Text Madurai Kanchi describes his efficient rule
Battle of Talaiyalanganam (Sangam account; exact year unestablished): Defeated Chola + Chera + 5 feudatories
Captured Chera ruler Sey (elephant eye) and imprisoned him
Title: Talaiyalanganam
Patron of poets Nakkirar and Mamundimarudan
Silappadikaram hero Kovalan given death sentence in his kingdom

Nalliyakkodan

Chief of Oymanadu praised in Sirupanarruppadai; not a Pandya king

Pandya embassies are associated with Augustus; not securely with Nalliyakkodan

🏛 3 Sangam Councils (Later Literary Tradition) Traditional duration: 9,950 years · 8,598 poets · 197 Pandya king patrons ▼

First Sangam

Place: Madurai

President: Sage Agastya (Agattiyar)

Members: 549 · Patron Rulers: 89

Major Work: Akattiyam (NONE surviving)

Second Sangam

Place: Kapadapuram (traditional account; not Alavai/Madurai)

President: Tolkappiyar

Members: 49 · Patron Rulers: 59

Surviving: Tolkappiyam only

Third Sangam

Place: Madurai (traditional account)

President: Nakkirar

Members: 49 · Patron Rulers: 49

Note: Most of remaining Tamil literature belongs to this Sangam

📖 Key Sangam Texts ▼

Text	Author	Details
Tolkappiyam	Tolkappiyar	Grammar & rhetoric · Oldest surviving text · Only survivor from 2nd Sangam
Tirukkural	Tiruvalluvar	Philosophical thoughts & aphorisms
Silappadikaram	Ilango Adigal	Love story of Kovalan, Kannagi, Madhavi
Manimekalai	Seethalai Sathanar	Story of daughter of Kovalan & Madhavi

10 Major Folk Songs (Gramkavya) — Patron Match

Poem	Author	Patron
Perumpanarruppadai	Rudran Kannanar	Tondaiman Ilantiraiyan (Kanchi ruler)
Thirumurugarruppadai	Nakkirar	—
Nedunalvadai	Nakkirar	Nedunjeliyan (Pandya)
Porunararruppadai	Mudattamakkanniyar	Karikala (Chola)
Pattinappalai	Rudran Kannanar	Karikal (Chola)
Madurai Kkanji	Maangudi Marudanar	Nedunjeliyan (Pandya)
Mullaippattu	Napputanar	Talaiyalanganam (Pandya)
Kurunjippattu	Kapilar	Literary Arya-king attribution; not securely identified with Mauryan Brihadratha

🏯 Pallava Dynasty — Intro Later imperial line: Simhavishnu · Kanchi · Charters: Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil · Shaiva/Vaishnava patronage ▼

Capital: Kanchi · Literal meaning: Creeper (Tamil: Robber)
Religion: Shaiva and Vaishnava patronage varied by ruler; Alvar saints in Vaishnava tradition
Ghatikas: Sanskrit/Vedic learning centres associated with the Pallavas; no all-India first claim
Tamil Mahabharatam created → Author Perundevanar

👑 Prominent Pallava Rulers ▼

Simhavishnu (575–600 CE)

Later imperial-line founder · Follower of Vaishnavism

Defeated Chola, Pandya, Sinhala, Kalabhra Kings · took control of Cholamandalam
Court poet: Bharavi → authored Kiratarjuneeyam

Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE)

Pioneer of the Pallava rock-cut phase; older rock-cut architecture existed

Titles: Mattavilasa, Vichitrachitta, Gunabhara
Contemporary of Emperor Harsha & Pulakeshin II
Author of humorous play Mattavilasa Prahasana

Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE)

Most powerful Pallava ruler

Defeated Pulakeshin II → earned title Vatapikonda
Built monolithic ratha temples at Mahabalipuram
641 CE: Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign

Narasimhavarman II (700–725 CE)

Temple builder

Built Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram
Built Shore Temple; Airavatesvara at Darasuram was built later by Chola Rajaraja II
Court author: Dandin — wrote Dashakumar Charita, Kavyadarsha

🏛 Pallava Architecture Styles ▼

Mamall Style

Builder: Narasimhavarman I

Mandapas + Rathas (monolithic)

Saptaratha temples (7 pagodas → 8 temples)

Draupadi Ratha = Smallest (hut-like)

Mahabalipuram Style

Narrative sculptures

Gangavatarana, Arjuna's Penance

Mandapas: Koneri, Adivaraha

Rajsingh Style

Stone temple of Shiva

Kailasanatha Temple (Kanchi) — Dravidian style

Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha); queens also contributed

Mandagapattu Trimurti shrine belongs to Mahendravarman I’s earlier phase

⚔ Rashtrakuta Dynasty — Key Facts Founder: Dantidurga · Feudatories of Chalukyas of Badami ▼

Founder

Dantidurga

735–756 CE

Initial Capital

Mayurkhindi

Later Capital

Manyakheta

Changed by Amoghavarsha

Coins

Garuda + Shiva/Vishnu weapons

Samangad copper-plate source: Samangad inscription of Dantidurga (754 CE)
Coronation called: Patabandha Sanskara (in inscriptions)
Dantidurga: Performed Hiranyagarbhadana Yagya after taking Ujjain · Acted as doorkeeper of Pratihara ruler

Amoghavarsha — Notable Details

Author of Kavirajamarga (Kannada language) — early surviving Kannada work on poetics; earlier writing existed
Prashnottara Ratnamalika: Sanskrit literary work traditionally attributed to Amoghavarsha
Court scholars: Jinasena & Swayambhu
Follower of Jainism
Arab traveler Suleiman visited India during his reign

Administration Hierarchy

Rashtra (20–25, head: Rashtrapati) → Vishaya (District; village totals varied, head: Vishayapati) → Bhukti (Tehsil, head: Bhogapati) → Village (head: Gramapati / Gramakuta / Gavunda)

🐯 Imperial Chola — Foundation ▼

Founder

Vijayalaya (850–875 CE)

Feudatory of Pallavas · Captured the delta from Muttaraiyar chiefs · Built Durga temple in Thanjavur

Real Founder

Rajaraja I

Capitals

Thanjavur (main) · Kanchi (sub)

Early royal centre: Uraiyur · Residential: Palaiyarai

👑 Key Chola Rulers ▼

Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE)

Real Founder · Original name: Arumolivarman

Defeated Sri Lanka ruler Mahinda V · New capital: Polonnaruwa (Jananathamangalam)
Title Jayagonda — for victory over Pandyas
Land measurement of entire empire
Strengthened the existing Chola navy
Built Brihadeeswara / Rajarajeshwara Temple (Thanjavur)
Tax assessment based on land classification
Manimangalam inscription: Rajadhiraja I’s Ashwamedha, not Rajaraja I’s

Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE)

Napoleon of the South (V.A. Smith)

Title: Gangaikondachola → after Ganga valley campaign
Complete conquest of Sinhala (Ilamandalam) 1017–18 CE
Sri Lankan King Mahinda V taken prisoner → died after 12 years
Naval expedition: Srivijaya and Kadaram; permanent annexation of all Burma and surrounding islands is not established
Kalinga conquest → then Ganga valley campaign (Mahipala I defeated)
New capital: Gangaikondacholapuram
Started construction of Cholaganga pond & canal
1033 CE: Embassy to China
Established school for Vedic literature — called Pandit Chola

🏛 Chola Administration ▼

Province Hierarchy

Mandalam (6–9 provinces) → Valanadu / Kottam → Nadu (district) → Kurram (village)

3 Types of Village Assemblies

Assembly	For Whom	Details
Ur	Common people	General village institution
Sabha / Mahasabha	Brahmins	Agrahara villages (land given to Brahmins)
Nagaram	Merchants	Limited to commercial towns only

Village Committees (Variyam)

Committee	Function
Udaseen Variyam	Look after foreigners / ascetics
Tottavariyam	Garden committee (12 members)
Ponna Variyam	Gold committee
Eri Variyam	Lake committee
Samvatsara Variyam	Annual committee (12 elder scholarly members)

Land Grants (Chola Period)

Brahmadeya

Land to Brahmins

Vellanvagai

Land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors

Devadana

Land to temples

Pallichchandam

Land to Jain community

🛕 Chola Architecture ▼

Temple	Builder	Key Fact
Brihadeeswara / Rajarajeshwara (Thanjavur)	Rajaraja I	Monumental Dravidian granite temple with a tall vimana · Granite construction · First Chola temple with an enclosure wall · Monolithic Nandi statue (prominent large stone image; exact rank unestablished)
Brihadeshwara Temple (Gangaikondacholapuram)	Rajendra I	In Tamil Nadu’s wider Kaveri-delta region · Dravidian Chola style · Dedicated to Shiva · Imposing Dravidian vimana; unverified 250-row claim

🗺 Other Major South/East Indian Dynasties ▼

Dynasty	Founder	Capital	Key Facts
Kakatiya	Rudradeva I	Warangal	Last Ruler: Prataparudradeva · Women Ruler: Rudramadevi · Decline: 14th century
Ganga Dynasty (Odisha)	—	—	Anantavarman Chodaganga was an Eastern Ganga ruler · Narasimhadeva I built Konark Sun Temple · Anantavarman built Jagannath Temple
Kesari Dynasty	—	—	Built famous Lingaraj Temple (Bhubaneswar)
Hoysala	Vishnuvardhana	Dwarasamudra	Built Chennakesava Temple · Vira Ballala III faced Malik Kafur in 1311 and paid tribute; his career continued afterwards · 10th–14th century
Yadava	Bhillama V (1187–91 CE)	Devagiri (Daulatabad)	Powerful ruler: King Singha · Ramachandra: paid tribute to Khalji forces; later rulers followed

⚠ TRAP 01 — 3 Kingdom Emblems

Chola = Tiger, not fish or bow
Chera = Bow
Pandya = Fish
Symbol–dynasty matching is a common direct question.

⚠ TRAP 02 — Pandya — Pearls and Woman-Ruler Account

Pandya = Famous for Pearls · Rule administered by women (woman-ruler literary account; not proof of matriarchy)
Mentioned in Megasthenes' Indica
Chola = cotton cloth · Chera = early Sangam kingdom

⚠ TRAP 03 — Tolkappiyam = 2nd Sangam (Only Survivor)

Tolkappiyam = Only surviving text from 2nd Sangam
Oldest surviving Tamil text
Author: Tolkappiyar · Deals with Grammar & Rhetoric
1st Sangam = nothing survives!

⚠ TRAP 04 — Narasimhavarman I vs II

Narasimhavarman I = Defeated Pulakeshin II; title Vatapikonda; built the monolithic Rathas at Mahabalipuram
Narasimhavarman II = Built the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchi and the Shore Temple
Both were Pallava rulers, so remember their regnal numbers.

⚠ TRAP 05 — Two Brihadeeswara Temples!

Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur = Rajaraja I; Dravidian style, granite and the larger temple
Brihadeeswara Temple, Gangaikondacholapuram = Rajendra I; Dravidian Chola style and located near the Kaveri
Distinguish the two temples by their builders.

⚠ TRAP 06 — Rajendra I = Napoleon of South

'Napoleon of the South' = Rajendra I of the Chola dynasty; title attributed by V. A. Smith
Gangaikondachola = Title adopted after his Ganga Valley campaign
Naval expedition: Srivijaya and Kadaram; sweeping permanent annexation claims are not established

⚠ TRAP 07 — Temple Builders

Konark Sun Temple = Narasimhadeva I (Ganga Dynasty, Odisha)
Jagannath Temple = Anantavarman (Ganga Dynasty)
Lingaraj Temple (Bhubaneswar) = Kesari Dynasty
Chennakesava Temple = Vishnuvardhana (Hoysala)

⚠ TRAP 08 — Kavirajamarga (Early Surviving Kannada Work)

Kavirajamarga = Written by Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta) in Kannada
Early surviving Kannada work on poetics; refers to earlier writing
Amoghavarsha = Follower of Jainism · Arab traveler Suleiman visited during his reign

Chola symbol?

Tiger

Chera symbol?

Bow

Pandya symbol?

Fish (Karp)

Pandya famous for?

Pearls · Woman-ruler literary account; not proven matriarchy

Chola initial capital?

Uraiyur (cotton textile trade)

Karikala meaning?

One with burnt legs

Karikala founded?

Puhar (Kaveripattinam)

Greatest Chera ruler?

Senguttuvan

Title: Kadalpikkottiya

Pattini / Kannagi worship started by?

Senguttuvan (Chera)

Chera — mentioned in Ashoka's edict as?

Keralaputra

Pandya capital?

Madurai

Most famous Pandya ruler?

Nedunjeliyan

Sangam kingdom with embassies to Augustus?

Pandya kingdom; Nalliyakkodan was the Oymanadu chief

1st Sangam place?

Madurai · President: Agastya

2nd Sangam place?

Kapadapuram (traditional account; not Alavai/Madurai) · Tolkappiyar

3rd Sangam place?

Madurai (traditional account) · Nakkirar

Oldest Tamil text?

Tolkappiyam

Only survivor from 2nd Sangam

Tirukkural author?

Tiruvalluvar

Silappadikaram author?

Ilango Adigal

Later imperial Pallava-line founder?

Simhavishnu (575–600 CE)

Pallava capital?

Kanchi

Vatapikonda title — Pallava ruler?

Narasimhavarman I

Defeated Pulakeshin II

Kailasanatha Temple — built by?

Narasimhavarman II

Kanchipuram

Pioneer of Pallava rock-cut temple phase?

Mahendravarman I (Pallava)

Mattavilasa Prahasana author?

Mahendravarman I

Rashtrakuta founder?

Dantidurga

Samangad copper-plate grant — ruler?

Dantidurga's Samangad inscription (754 CE)

Kavirajamarga — language?

Kannada · Author: Amoghavarsha

Imperial Chola founder?

Vijayalaya (850–875 CE)

Real founder of Imperial Chola?

Rajaraja I

Rajaraja I original name?

Arumolivarman

Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur — builder?

Rajaraja I

Granite · Monumental Dravidian temple with tall vimana

"Napoleon of the South"?

Rajendra I

Given by V.A. Smith

Gangaikondachola title — who?

Rajendra I

Konark Sun Temple builder?

Narasimhadeva I (Ganga Dynasty)

Jagannath Temple builder?

Anantavarman (Ganga Dynasty)

Lingaraj Temple (Bhubaneswar)?

Kesari Dynasty

Belur Chennakesava patron?

Vishnuvardhana

Built Chennakesava Temple

Chola village assembly for Brahmins?

Sabha / Mahasabha

Chola village assembly for merchants?

Nagaram