Sources: 3 Types
Inscriptions: 5 Key
Vedas: 4
Travelers: 12+
Father of Indian Archaeology: A. Cunningham
3 Sources of Knowing Ancient History
Sources for Studying Ancient History
▼
Source 1
⛏ Archaeological Sources
Archaeological Sources — Physical evidence
Source 2
📚 Literary Sources
Literary Sources — Texts and books
Source 3
🌍 Foreign Travelers
Accounts of Foreign Travellers
Key Definitions
▼
| Term | Meaning | Key Name |
|---|---|---|
| Archaeology | Study of ancient objects and structures | Father: Alexander Cunningham |
| Epigraphy | Study of inscriptions | — |
| Numismatics | Study of coins → Numismatics | — |
Important Inscriptions (Abhilekh)
5 Must-Know for Exam
▼
| Inscription | Details | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Boghazkoi 1400 BCE |
Stone inscriptions Mentions: Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Nasatya |
Evidence of Aryan migration from Iran to East |
| Maski & Gurjara | — | Clear inscription in the name of Ashoka |
| Prayag Prashasti | Engraved by royal poet Harisena | Inscription of Samudragupta |
| Eran Inscription | King: Bhanugupta | First written evidence of Sati practice |
| Bhitari Pillar | King: Skandagupta | First record of Huna invasion on India |
Coins — Development
Numismatics / Mudrashastra
▼
Earliest Coins
Punch-marked coins
Symbols only — no writing
1st Gold Coins
Indo-Greek Coins
First gold coins
Most Gold Coins Issued
Gupta Period
Samudragupta — Veena playing on coins
Purest Gold Coins
Kushan Period
Purest gold coins
Monuments, Caves & Sculptures
▼
Monuments
- Mauryan Palace: Remains of Chandragupta Maurya's palace at Kumhrar (Patna)
Caves — Gifted to Ajivikas
| Builder | Location | Caves |
|---|---|---|
| Ashoka | Barabar Hills | 4 caves: Sudama, Karna Chaupad, Vishva Jhopdi, Lomas Rishi |
| Dasharatha | Nagarjuni Hills | Gopi, Vedika, Cave of Vapiya |
Sculptures & Paintings
- Buddhist Sculptures: Flourished during Kushan Period
- Earliest Buddha Images: Gandhara Style
- Ajanta Paintings: Dated from 1st Century CE to 7th Century CE
Religious Literature (Dharmik Sahitya)
Buddhist, Jain & Vedic texts
▼
Buddhist Texts
Tripitakas, Jataka, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa
Source of Mauryan history
Milinda Panho → Information about an Indo-Greek ruler Menander
Milinda Panho → Information about an Indo-Greek ruler Menander
Jain Texts
Parishishtaparvan, Bhadrabahu Charita, Bhagavati Sutra
Bhagavati Sutra → Contains a list of the 16 Mahajanapadas
The 4 Vedas
Frequently asked as a direct exam question
▼
| Veda | Description / Key Fact |
|---|---|
| Rigveda | Collection of hymns |
| Samaveda | Hymns in musical form — Earliest reference to music |
| Yajurveda | Rules for rituals and sacrifices — Ritual-focused |
| Atharvaveda | Collection of charms, mantras and spells — Charms and spells |
Important Historical Texts — Authors and Works
▼
| Work (Kitaab) | Author (Lekhak) | Subject / Info |
|---|---|---|
| Ashtadhyayi | Panini | First Sanskrit grammar book · Info on Pre-Mauryan society |
| Arthashastra | Kautilya (Chanakya) | Mauryan administration · First book about political system |
| Rajatarangini | Kalhana | History of Kashmir |
| Mahabhashya | Patanjali | Info about Post-Mauryan system (Shunga dynasty wagera) |
🏺 Greek Writers (Unani)
Herodotus
🇬🇷 Greek
- Father of History
- Included fictional tales in writings
Ctesias
🇬🇷 Greek
- Royal Physician of Iran
Megasthenes
🇬🇷 Greek · Ambassador of Seleucus
- Ambassador at Chandragupta Maurya's court
- Described Mauryan society & administration
Ptolemy
🇬🇷 Greek
- —
Pliny
🇬🇷 Greek · 1st Century CE
- —
Periplus of Erythraean Sea
Anonymous author
- Info on Indian ports & trade goods
🇨🇳 Chinese Travelers (Cheeni Yatri)
Faxian
🇨🇳 Chinese · Came 402 CE
- Visited during Chandragupta II's reign (Gupta Period)
- Stayed in India for 14 years
Sung Yun
🇨🇳 Chinese · Came 518 CE
- Collected copies of Buddhist texts
- Stayed 3 years
Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang)
🇨🇳 Chinese · Came 630 CE
- Came during Harshavardhana's reign
- Stayed 15 years
- Described society, religion & politics of Harsha's time
I-Tsing
🇨🇳 Chinese · Late 7th century
- Studied at Nalanda & Vikramshila universities
- Wrote about Indian society
📿 Arabic Writers (Arabi)
Al-Biruni
🕌 Arabic · Came 1017 CE with Mahmud Ghazni
- Resident of modern Turkmenistan
Ibn Battuta
🕌 Arabic · Came 1333 CE (14th Century)
- Appointed Qazi (Judge) of Delhi by Muhammad bin Tughlaq
🌏 Other Writers
Taranatha
🏔 Tibetan · 1575–1634 CE
- —
Marco Polo
🇮🇹 Italian · 1288–1292 CE
- Visited Pandya region at end of 13th century
- Descriptions useful for studying Pandya's history
⚠ TRAP 01 — Coins
Indo-Greeks = First gold coins
Kushans = Purest gold coins
Guptas = Largest number of gold coins issued
These are three separate exam facts—do not confuse them.
Kushans = Purest gold coins
Guptas = Largest number of gold coins issued
These are three separate exam facts—do not confuse them.
⚠ TRAP 02 — Caves
Ashoka → Barabar Hills (4 caves: Sudama, Karna Chaupad, Vishva Jhopdi and Lomas Rishi)
Dasharatha → Nagarjuni Hills (Gopi, Vedika and Vapiya)
Both rulers donated caves to the Ajivikas—an important exam fact.
Dasharatha → Nagarjuni Hills (Gopi, Vedika and Vapiya)
Both rulers donated caves to the Ajivikas—an important exam fact.
⚠ TRAP 03 — Firsts
First Sati evidence: Eran Inscription (King Bhanugupta)
First Huna invasion record: Bhitari Pillar (Skandagupta)
First Sanskrit grammar book: Ashtadhyayi (Panini)
First political book: Arthashastra (Chanakya)
First Huna invasion record: Bhitari Pillar (Skandagupta)
First Sanskrit grammar book: Ashtadhyayi (Panini)
First political book: Arthashastra (Chanakya)
⚠ TRAP 04 — Stay Duration (Chinese Travelers)
Faxian = 14 years (during Chandragupta II's reign, 402 CE)
Xuanzang = 15 years (during Harsha's reign, 630 CE)
Sung Yun = 3 years (518 CE)
The 14-year and 15-year stays are frequently confused in exams.
Xuanzang = 15 years (during Harsha's reign, 630 CE)
Sung Yun = 3 years (518 CE)
The 14-year and 15-year stays are frequently confused in exams.
⚠ TRAP 05 — Arabic Travelers
Al-Biruni: Came with Mahmud of Ghazni (1017 CE) and wrote Kitab-ul-Hind.
Ibn Battuta: Came in 1333 CE, wrote Rihla, and was appointed Qazi by Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Both wrote in Arabic, but they visited during the reigns of different rulers.
Ibn Battuta: Came in 1333 CE, wrote Rihla, and was appointed Qazi by Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Both wrote in Arabic, but they visited during the reigns of different rulers.
⚠ TRAP 06 — Boghazkoi Inscription
Boghazkoi (1400 BCE) mentions the Vedic deities Indra, Mitra, Varuna and Nasatya.
It is evidence of an eastward Aryan movement and was found in Iran, not India.
It is evidence of an eastward Aryan movement and was found in Iran, not India.
⚠ TRAP 07 — Vedas
Rigveda = Collection of hymns
Samaveda = Musical hymns and the earliest reference to music
Atharvaveda = Charms and spells; distinct from the other three
Yajurveda = Rituals and sacrifices
Samaveda = Musical hymns and the earliest reference to music
Atharvaveda = Charms and spells; distinct from the other three
Yajurveda = Rituals and sacrifices
Father of Indian Archaeology?
Alexander Cunningham
Study of inscriptions?
Epigraphy
Study of coins?
Numismatics / Mudrashastra
Earliest coins?
Punch-marked coins
Only symbols — no writing
First gold coins?
Indo-Greek Coins
Purest gold coins?
Kushan Period
Most gold coins issued?
Gupta Period
Samudragupta — Veena on coins
First Sati evidence?
Eran Inscription
King Bhanugupta
First Huna invasion record?
Bhitari Pillar
King Skandagupta
Indica — who wrote it?
Megasthenes
Ambassador of Seleucus
Who wrote Si-Yu-Ki?
Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang)
During Harsha's reign, 630 CE
Rihla — who wrote it?
Ibn Battuta
1333 CE, Qazi of Delhi
Kitab-ul-Hind — who wrote?
Al-Biruni
Came with Mahmud Ghazni, 1017 CE
Father of History?
Herodotus
Arthashastra — who wrote?
Kautilya / Chanakya
First book on political system
Rajatarangini — subject?
History of Kashmir
Written by Kalhana
Prayag Prashasti — whose inscription?
Samudragupta
Engraved by poet Harisena
Faxian — visited which ruler?
Chandragupta II
402 CE, stayed 14 years
Earliest Buddha images?
Gandhara Style
16 Mahajanapadas — source?
Bhagavati Sutra
Jain text
What information does Milinda Panho provide?
Menander
Indo-Greek ruler
Ashoka's caves — which hills?
Barabar Hills
4 caves
Veda with first music reference?
Samaveda
Aryan migration evidence?
Boghazkoi Inscription
1400 BCE — Iran to East